Geography Of Jammu And Kashmir

A: Overview

The territory of the State of Jammu and Kashmir lies between four degrees of latitude from 32.17 to 36.58

North. Within these 640 Kms. there is a sudden rise of altilude from 305 metres to 6910 metres above sea
level. The State of Jammu and Kashmir, therefore, lies between the hot plains of the Jammu Province and
coldest dry table-land of Ladakh. These territories are, as such, transitional in climate.

Weather conditions are different at different places. There are many causes of difference:

1. Relief is the main factor. Lofty mountains like the Pirpanjal, the Zanskar and the Karakoram check
winds from blowing in thus moisture is stopped from entering the valleys by the lofly mountains.

A View Of  Nanga Parbat

2. The Monsoon winds in summer cause rain in the Outer Plains and the Outer Hills. But these winds can
cross the Pir Panjal range only when they are very strong. In winter winds from the Mediterranean cause
snow and rain in the Valley of Kashmir. Snow falls on the mountains which enclose the valley.

3. Forests influence winds, rainfall and temperature. The moisture laden winds cause rainfall in the
forests on the hills making the temperature to fall in summer. Thus the climate of Pahalgam, Gulmarg etc.
is comparatively milder than that of Srinagar or Sopore.

4. Altitude is also a factor. So the climate of the valley of Kashmir is comparatively milder than that of
the Outer Plain that lie on a very low altitude. The rainfall also varies as the altitude rises.



B: Vegetation and Soil Types

Vegetation is influenced by climate, rainfall soil and altitude. Since these factors vary as the altitude rises
from the outer plains of Jammu Province to the loftiest mountain ranges of the Inner Himalayas, it is but
natural that the vegetation should vary from the Inner Himalayas to the middle mountains and the outer
plains of Jammu region.

Forests are one of the most important resources of Jammu and Kashmir. Spread over 2,236 sq. kms. of the
demarcated area forests accounts for 20% of the total geographical area of the state on this side of the
Line of Control. More than 99% of forest area is confined to the province of Jammu & Kashmir only,
with largest area of 5848 sq. kms. in district of Doda and smallest are of 481 sq. kms. in the district of
Budgam. The valley of Kashmir has deciduous vegetation. The Chinar, Poplar, Deodar, Fir, Pine, Kail, Partal, Mulbery, Walnut and other fruit trees grow throughout the valley. Baramulla and Anantnag districts have respectively 71% and 60% of their areas under forests.
Big forests in the valley provide timber and fire-wood. Grassy meadows in the forest provide fodder for
the cattle. Medicinal herbs such as balladona, hyoseyamus, digitalis, menthol, artemisis, polygola,
podophyllum, rubus, trilliu, hops and kuth grow in these forests. Industries like paper, joinery sports
goods, furniture, wood carving, herbal drugs, silk industry, manufacture of agricultural implements and
construction of railway sleepers depend on these forests.
The thick undergrowth in the forests stores up rain water and allows it to flow slowly and that is why
rivers that have their sources in the forests do not run dry in the dry seasons and check floods during the
rainy season.

Soils
In the regions of Jammu and Kashmir the soils are loamy and there is little clay content in them. Poor in
lime but with a high content of magnesia, the soil is treated with chemical fertilisers and enriched with
green manure and legume before cultivation .There is sufficient organic matter and nitrogen content in the
alluvium of the Kashmir valley as a result of plant residue, crops stubble, natural vegetation and animal
excretion.
The valley of Kashmir has many types of soils like: Gurti (clay), Bahil (Loam), Sekil (Sandy),
Nambaal (Peats), Surzamin, Lemb, Floating garden soils and Karewa soils. No wonder, in Kashmir, soil
is virtually worshipped as a miracle of divinity as it is a source of wealth of the land.



C: Irrigation - Importance and Types

A view Of Baghliar Dam

Irrigation
Irrigation plays an important role in the agriculture of the State of Jammu and Kashmir. Our State does
not receive rain throughout the year and sometimes it is quite insufficient and it is neither uniform nor
certain. In Jammu region temperature conditions favour cultivation of crops throughout the year but due
to non availability of water in the region the plant growth is limited. Rainy season provides sufficient
water from July to September. In winter also this region receives several showers of rain. The remaining
months of the year are dry.


Methods of Irrigation
The following methods of irrigation are in use in the State of Jammu and Kashmir:

(a) Canals form the most important system of irrigation in the Outer- plains and in the broad valley of
Kashmir where the soil is soft and alluvial and canals can be easily dug. Moreover, the Jhelum and its
tributaries are all snow-fed and they never run dry. They supply water to the canals throughout the year.
About 486072 acres of land in Kashmir are irrigated by canals.
(b) Lift Irrigation by pumping water to higher level and then carrying it to the field through canals.
(c) Wherever water is available at the depth of one or two meters, it is drawn out by lever system and then
suspplied to the fields directly. At present about 6000 such wells are working in the valley.


D: Agriculture

Agriculture is the most important industry of the people of Jammu and Kashmir. Even those engaged in
other industries depend on agriculture for raw material.
About 80% people in the State are cultivators in one form or the other. The total area of the State
according to the 1992 record of India is 24.15 lakh hectares. Out of this area 138,6867 Sq. Kms. are rural
and only 305.4 Sq. Kms.are urban. This signifies that the entire State of Jammu and Kashmir is rural with
6503 villages. Out of the total area of 24.15 lakh hect. agricultural statistics are available only for about
8.26 lakh hect. The rest of the area is under forests and mountains.

Other Agricultural Activities

1. Silk. It is obtained from silk worms which feed on mulberry trees. These trees require a warm and
moist climate. Silk cocoons are,therefore, grown in abundance in the valley of Kashmir Two silk
factories, one in Jammu and the other in Srinagar, manufacture silkyarn from these cocoons.
2. Wool. It is obtained from sheep and in the State they are mostly reared in the valley of Kashmir on the
grassy meadows. Quality sheep from Australia have been imported for sheep breeding in Kashmir.

E: Geomorphology

Geological Structure
Thc Geology of the territoties of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh have been studied in some detail by R.
Lydekkar. He has divided the territory into three different structural Zones:
1. The Panjal
2. The Zanskar
3. The Tertiary Groups
These three Geological divisions form the basis of the four physical divisions of the State.
The Panjal forms the Outer plain, the Outer Hills and the Middle Mountains. The Zankar includes the
whole of the eastern region from Spiti and Lahol (32.170N. Latitude) to the lofty Karakoram mountains in
the north. The Tertiary Groups include the valley of Kashmir and other river Valleys.
The oval valley of Kashmir is longitudinal. It is about 1700 metres above sea level. There is a high wall of
mountains round the valley. These rise to a height of 5500 metres above sea level.
The only outlet of the valley is Baramulla where the Jehlum flows out through a narrow gorge.
The entire drainage of the valley of Kashmir and its surrounding areas have only this outlet. In the north, Kashmir has many volcanic rock formations. These are mostly stratified and several thousand metres thick.


F: Handicrafts, Export and Import

In Kashmir, with its severe winter when climate conditions are semi-arctic, craftsmen utilize their lesiure
as well as creative intelligence in creating artifacts of exquisite beauty.

Kashmir is known for the following handicrafts throughout the world:

Handicraft works in Kashmir

Carpets is a gift of caravans coming into the valley from Central Asia. In the time of
Zain-ul-abdin Badshah, this art was greatly developed by imported skill and royal patronage. The
Europeans also took a keen interest in it.
Namdas are made of wool of inferior quality and old woollen blankets are used for making gabbas.
The art of felting wool into namdas has come from Yarkand.
Kangri making is a cottage industry concentrated in the areas on the banks of Wullar lake near
Watlab and at Tsrar and Botingo villages.
Papier Mache is a monoply of Kashmir. Pulp and paper are shaped into a variaty of decorative articles
and colorful designs are painted on them.
Pashmina shawl industry is an old industry of Kashmir. Pashmina wool used to come from Tibet via
Ladakh but since the invasion of China in 1962 and closing of the Leh Yarkand route, Pashmina shawl
and carpet industries have been affected greatly.




Read More: Why Study Geography?

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World Of Facts

World Facts

Total no. of countries	203- 193 sovereign countries and 20 non-sovereign countries
Largest / Smallest country	Russia / State of Vatican in Rome
First and smallest Republic	San Marino(11th century AD) and Nauru
Largest lakes	Caspian sea (Asia-Europe), followed by Superior (North America) and Victoria(Africa)
Deepest lake	Baikal (Russia)
Largest subtropical desert	Sahara (Africa)
Largest coastal desert	Atacama (Chile)
Largest cold desert	Gobi (China)
Driest inhabited place	Aswan, Egypt
Driest place	Atacama Desert, Chile
Wettest Place	Mawsynram
Wettest inhabited place	Buenaventura, Colombia
Deepest point in Ocean	Mariana Trench, Pacific Ocean (10920m) Puerto Rico Trench, Atlantic Ocean Java Trench, Indian Ocean (7125m)
Highest waterfall	Angel Falls, Venezuela
Largest waterfall	Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
Highest extinct volcano	Cerro Aconcagua, Argentina
Highest active volcano	Guallatiri, Chile
Highest dormant volcano	Llullaillaco, Chile
Largest estuary	Orb, Russia
Largest river/river basin	Amazon
Longest river	Nile
Shortest river	Roe, Montana
Largest artificial lake	Lake Mead, USA
Largest sea	South China Sea
Largest Bay	Hudson Bay, North Canada
Largest Gulf	Gulf of Mexico
Largest Delta	Sundarbans, Ganga- Brahmaputra Delta
Largest Peninsula	Arabia
Largest Island	Greenland
Smallest country	Vatican City
Lowest mountains	Bheinna Bhaile
Largest glacier	Siachen Glacier
Coldest Place	Plateau region, Antarctica (-70˚F)
Hottest Place	Dalol, Denakil Depression, Ethopia(93.4˚F)
Deepest Gorge	Hell’s Canyon, USA
Saltiest lake	Van
First National Park	United States Yellowstone National Park, 1872
IUCN	International Union for Conservation of Nature
Largest Wetland	Pantanal which straddle Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay in South America
International Year of Coral Reef	2008
International year of Biodiversity declared by 61th session of United Nations General Assembly in 2006	2010
Genetic Colonialism	Example of bio-piracy
International Year of Forests	2011 (by United Nations)
Cocoa	It was first exported from the Gold Coast in 1891; Ghana is world’s largest producer and exporter of cocoa.
Biggest Oil Refinery	At Abadan, Iran
Venice of the East	Bangkok, Thialand
First conference of Afro-Asian Countries held at	Bandung, Indonesia
Cape Kennedy	Missile launching center and HQ of NASA
Detroit, USA	Automobile Capital of the world
The Hague, Netherlands	Seat of International Court of Justice, UN
Olympia, Greece	Birth place of Olympic games in 1896
Hot Line	Telecommunication link established between Kremlin(Russia) and White House(USA) to avoid accidental wars.

#2 - Some other World Facts

World Facts

        

• The colorful night light display in the sky near Arctic Circle are called Northern lights and near Antarctic Circle are called Southern Lights. These are caused by intense solar wind activity on the sun. the sun sheds electrically charged particles to the Earth which then penetrate into the Earth’s magnetic field. They enter into upper atmosphere and bombard its gases which produced visible energy as arcs and streaks of colored light.
• El Nino and La Nina: the variations in the temperature of the surface of the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean (warming and cooling known as El Niño and La Niña respectively) and in air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific are coupled: the warm oceanic phase, El Niño, accompanies high air surface pressure in the western Pacific, while the cold phase, La Niña, accompanies low air surface pressure in the western Pacific. The extremes of this climate pattern's oscillations, El Niño and La Niña, cause extreme weather (such as floods and droughts) in different parts of the world.
• Each year the Amazon sends 20% of the Earth’s available fresh water into the Atlantic
• Panch Pokhri: it is highest named lake in the world found at 17,758feet on Mount Everest.

• Geography Milestones
• CA 200 B.C. : Eratosthenes of Cyrene’s Geographica
• CA A.D. 23 : Strabo’s 17- volume Geography
• CA A.D. 160 : Ptolemy’s Guide to Geography
• 1570: first collection of world maps, Orteliu’s Theater of the world
• 1625: first geography text book, Carpenter’s Geography Delineated Forth in Two Books
• Standard map projections are Conical, Cylindrical and Azimuthal Projections. Claudius Ptolemy was the first Scholar to describe a conical map projection in II century in Egypt.
• World Maps:
• The Van der Grinten projection was used for its political maps from 1922-1980s.
• The Winkel Tripel projection, adopted in 1998by National Geographic society (USA) is mostly chosen for general reference.
• The Robinson projection was favored from 1988-98 for textbooks teachings.
• The Mercator projection is very old and still majorly used.
• History of Mapping:
• In CIRCA 6000 B.C., earliest known map was created in Iraq.
• 1500 BC-1000AD, Polynesians navigate Pacific Ocean
• 1136 AD: map of China in grid system found engraved on stone
• 1420-1460: the navigator of Portugal Prince Henry advances navigation science
• 1540-1552: Munster maps continents
• 1569: Gerardus Mercator introduces world projection
• 1570: Abraham Ortelius(1527-98) makes portable atlas
• Babylonia and Egypt brings the earliest surviving maps. The latter rendered mythical lands and routes to afterlife and the former’s cartography was more practical.
• The French were the first to conduct official national land survey and produced 182 map sheets by 1787. The british adopted the same technique to produce the great Trigonometrical Survey of India in late 19th century.
• Theodolite is a basic surveying instrument used to measure horizontal and verticals angles, consisting of mounted, swiveling telescope with a level.
• Tellurometer is a device that measures the round trip travel of reflected microwaves to calculate distance.
• Astrolabe - it is originated in 6th century as a tool to tell time and observe the heavens. It was first used by Muslims to determine prayer times and the direction of Mecca. Medieval astrolabes were used to calculate the position of the sun and stars w.r.t the horizon and the meridian.
• Aerial photography - Wilbur Wright took the first aerial photograph from an airplane in 1909. It was widely used in World War II.
• Photogrammetry is the technique that uses terrestrial and aerial photographs for mapmaking and surveying.
• Sonar - it is the majorly used method to map the depth of the oceans. It uses the principle of eco. From the deepest ocean bottoms, sound waves take less than 15 seconds to return to the surface.
• LANDSAT – it is a series of unmanned scientific satellites equipped with cameras that is launched by USA in 1972. It has capability to rephotograph an area after every 18 days. Recently, Landsat 8 was launched in 2011.
• The GPS (Global Positioning System)
• Originally developed by military use, it is a space-age version of triangulation.
• It has 3 components: satellite orbiting around Earth, master control stations around the world, and receivers installed in all locations.
• When a GPS user on Earth calls for location information, signals pass from orbiting satellites to that of user’s receiver.
• At Equator, degree of latitude is equal to 68.708 miles and degree of longitude equals 69.171 miles.
• Greek astronomer Hipparchus invented formal system of latitude and longitude, divided Earth circle into 360 degrees, each degree having 60minutes and each minute having 60 seconds.
• An International Time zone system was established in 1884 that divided the globe into 24 zones with meridian at 15˚ intervals. The Prime Meridian was set at Greenwich in London at 0˚ longitude, with an international date line at 180˚, halfway around the word from Greenwich.
• Leap Years - the plan of adding a day after every 4 years was devised by Egyptians, as Earth takes approximately 365 and ¼ days to orbit around sun so an extra day accumulates after every 4 years. Romans created February 29 as standard leap day in 46 BC. It didn’t perfectly correct the problem as Earth orbits in 11min 14sec less than 365 and ¼ days. Thus, a correction was established in 1582 that added a leap year only to century years divisible by 400. Thus, 2000 was leap year buy 2100,2200 and 2300 will not.
• Geomagnetic poles are the points where the axis of the magnetic field intersects with Earth’s surface. Magnetic poles are indicated by compass needles that line up with Earth’s magnetic field. The location of the poles also changes as Earth experience wobbling on its spin.
• Van Allen Belts – discovered by Explorer 1 satellite and named after American Physicist James Van Allen, these are two doughnut-shaped magnetic rings around Earth that contain charged particles trapped from solar winds.
• The weight of the Antarctic ice cap deforms the shape of the Earth.
• The Tropic of Cancer runs through – Guangzhou (China), Bhopal (India), Muscat (Oman), Mazatlan (Mexico) and Little Exuma (Bahamas).
• The Tropic of Capricorn runs through – Longreach (Australia), Rehoboth (Namibia), Toliara (Madagascar), Sao Paulo (Brazil) and Tubuai (French Polynesia).
• About one third of the world’s people live in latitudes between Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The seasons are caused by the Earth’s tilt when it orbits around the sun.
• Ibn Battuta (1304-69) earned the epithet Traveler of Islam. He travelled 75,000 miles which is 3 times the distance covered by Marco Polo across Asia, Africa and Europe.
• Neutron star is a body of densely packed neutrons that are formed after the explosion of a supernova. A neutron star, ten miles in diameter could have more mass than three stars comparable in size to our sun.
• Stars are born in an enormous cloud of interstellar dust and hydrogen gas called a Nebula. Nebulae are the building blocks of stars, galaxies and planets. Stars range in size from a white dwarf to an O star. Sun is a G star.
• The circumpolar stars circle at a point above the North Pole near Pole star and above South Pole near the star Sigma Octantis. International Astronomical Union officially recognized 88 constellations in 1928.
• Light from Milky Way takes 25,000 years to reach Earth. Milky Way Galaxy:
  • It is a spiral shaped galaxy
  • Total mass: 400 billion solar masses including dark matter (1 solar mass= 1.99* 1030 kg)
  • 100 billion total no. of stars
  • Distance of nucleus from sun : 26,000 light years
• Galaxies are of three different shapes: elliptical, spiral and irregular.
• Black Hole is formed when a large dying star collapses. It emits no light and has extremely strong gravitational pull. Its presence is detectable by radio astronomy equipment. Nothing passing within a certain distance of Black Hole can escape, not even light. The largest Black Hole recorded weighs as much as 18 billion suns and is orbited by another black hole.
• There are three types of Black Hole:
• Stellar Mass: formed from collapsed cores of giant stars and has a mass a few times greater than our Sun. e.g. Cygnus X-1
• Intermediate Mass: it is thousands of times bigger than Earth’s Sun. e.g. G1, M74
• Supermassive: largest type of galaxy and billion times larger than Sun. e.g. Milky Way Sagittarius A
• International Astronomical Union (IAU) lined up 8 planets to our solar system in 2006. Pluto has been added to the ‘Dwarf Planets’ with Ceres and Eris. Pluto and Eris are found beyond Neptune in the Kuiper belt. Pluto is now regarded as one of a group of orbiting bodies and not as a solitary planet.
• The Kuiper Belt is a smorgasbord of galactic debris and planetary leftovers that extends from orbit of Neptune to hundreds of millions of miles beyond Pluto.
• Sun is a 3rd generation star. It is 74% hydrogen and 25% helium. It accounts for 99% of the total matter in our solar system.
• Jantar Mantar – it is the world’s largest stone observatory built in 1727-34 by King Jai Sawai Singh II. It has 14 equipments to predict astronomical events and includes 90 feet tall, world’s largest sundial in the euipment.
• Yuri Gagarin(1934-68) was the first human to travel in space. He completed a single orbit in a one-man capsule Vostok I. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics launched Sputnik, world’s first communication satellite in 1957.
• 1961 – first men in space, 1963- first woman in space, 1972 – Apollo 17 (last moon mission)
• In 2008, Phoenix mission found ice on Mars, thus supported possibility of water supporting life.
• The deepest hole ever dug lies in Russia’s Peninsula near Norway that is drilled by geologists since 1970 to study Earth’s crust. It’s now over 40,000 feet deep.
• Tambora’, one of the deadliest volcanoes erupted in 1815 in Indonesia, killed 92,000 people. Dust after Tambora’s eruption lowered temperatures worldwide. ‘1816’ is considered as a ‘Year without summer’.
• The average rate of motion across the California’s San Andreas Fault is the same rate at which fingernails grow. The worst tsunami in history occurred after a 9.0 earthquake off the northwest coast of Sumatra in Indonesia on 26th December, 2004.
• Atoll – an atoll starts with an undersea volcanic eruption in the warm tropics, which builds a mid ocean island. Then coral begins to build an encircling reef around the island below the water surface.
• Oxygen was discovered by Joseph Priestley.
• Layers of the atmosphere
• Thermosphere from 50 miles up to 360 miles. This layer seems cold to humans although X-rays from sun causes rise in temperature upto 3100˚F. The reason is dispersion of molecules in this layer.
• Mesosphere: extends from 30 to 50miles above Earth surface and has temperature around -200˚F.
• Stratosphere: extends from 6 to 30 miles. Ozone layer is present here that absorbs sun’s rays and mostly jets travel in this layer.
• Troposphere: from ground level of the Earth to 6 miles above. It is the warmest layer and location of cloud formation and weather origination.
• Types of Global winds are Polar easterlies, Westerlies, Northeast tradewinds, Southeast tradewinds. World famous winds:
• Sirocco winds: hot spring winds that blow from African Sahara to the Southern European coastline.
• El Norte: cold and strong wind that causes a rapid temperature drop across Texas and Gulf of Mexico.
• Le Mistral: violent wind that last 3 months in French Mediterranean.
  
• The Doldrums: these are the band of nearly still air along the equator, where northerly and southerly trade winds meet.
• The Buran: strong northeasterly wind in Siberia and Central Asia that creates wind blizzards.

#1 - Some other World Facts.

• World Facts

•  
• Giant Horsetail plants formed a large part of plants that turned into coal deposits years ago.
• The tallest living being on Earth is the Redwood Tree, which can grow to a height of more than 350 feet.
• An average tree can absorb a ton of carbon dioxide in its whole life time.
• Flowers:
  • Largest : Rafflesia arnoldii (3 feet wide, weighs 24 pounds)
  • Smallest: Lemnaceae, Duckweeds (floating aquatic plants, 0.04 to
• Trees:
  • Tallest Sequoia sempervirens, Redwood tree (found in California in 2006)
  • Oldest living tree: Picea abes, Norway spruce (9,550 years old root system, found in Sweden in 2004)
• Hottest inhabited place is Djibouti (86˚F) and coldest inhabited place is Norilsk in Russia (12.4˚F)
• 8 of the world’s 10 worst tropical cyclones occurred in Bay of Bengal.
• Major Biomes: Temperate forest, Rain forest, Boreal forest, Mediterranean forest, Mangrove, Grassland and Savanna, Desert and dry Shrubland, Tundra and Icecap, Marine and Fresh water.
• About 2% of the water on Earth is locked up in snow, ice and glaciers.
• Deepest points in Oceans : Pacific (Mariana trench); Atlantic ocean (Puerto Rico Trench); Indian (Java Trench); Arctic (Molloy Deep)
• Textile history:
  • 5000 BC: Cotton wearing in Pakistan, India and Africa
  • 5000 BC: Flax weaving in Egypt
  • 2700 BC: Silkworm cocoon thread used to weave cloth in China
  • 500 BC: Spinning wheel developed in India
  • 1790: Water-powered spinning mill in the U.S
  • 1910: Rayon developed
  • 1938: Nylon developed
  • 1952: Polyester developed
• Rosetta Stone: it was created in 200 BC that unlocked hieroglyphic symbols that were used by scribes in Egypt. The Hieroglyphic system of writing vanished in 5th century AD from Egypt. With this, the knowledge of translation of complex symbols was also lost. Then, in 1799, a Frenchman in Rosetta in Egypt discovered a black granite stone from 2nd century BC that bore inscriptions in Egyptian hieroglyphic, Egyptian demotic and Greek. Using this, he was able to reveal the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.
• Milestones in Religion:
  • 70,000 BC: Neanderthals buried with ritual objects
  • 10,000 BC: European cave paintings depict shamans
  • 3000 BC: Egyptians build temples to creator God
  • 2000 BC: Abraham leads Hebrews into Canaan
  • 1500 BC: Hinduism begins as Aryans invade the Indus Valley
  • 1290 BC: Moses leads slaves out of Egypt
  • 600 BC: Zoroaster brings monotheism to Persia
  • CIRCA 528 BC: Gautama Buddha receives enlightenment
  • CIRCA 500 BC: Confucius teaches moral principles
  • CIRCA AD 30: Jesus crucified in Judea
  • 300-500: Buddhism spreads to China, Korea and Japan
  • 610: Mohammad receives first revelations of the Koran
  • 1054: Christianity splits into Eastern and Western branches
  • 1517: Martin Luther begins Protestant movement
• Transportation history:
• CIRCA 3500 BC: First known wheel, Mesopotamia
• 3000 BC: Egyptians build sailing ships
• AD 1769: Cugnot invents steam- propelled vehicles
• 1783: Montgolfier brothers fly hot-air balloon
• 1807: Fulton operates successful steamboat
• 1885-1886: Dailmer and Benz build gas-powered auto
• 1903: Wilbur and Orville Wright fly airplane
•  
•  
• Glaciers shape the land: although they seem to be frozen, still and solid, they are actually moving, carving and churning the land beneath and around them. During Glaciations, ice sheets prevent water flow except for trickles of molten water through glacier tunnels. After Glaciations, the land forms reflect an icy past in structure and composition of soil by forming kettle lakes, terminal moraines and eskers.
• Carbon dioxide Emissions from fossil fuels:
  • USA (20% of the world’s emission)
  • China (18.4%)
  • Russia (5.6%)
  • India (4.9%)
  • Japan (4.6%)
  • Germany (3%)
  • Canada (2.3%)
• Without the natural greenhouse effect, the Earth would be more than 50˚F colder than it is today, with an average global temperature of 5˚F which is much less hospitable to life.
• The hole in Earth’s protective layer called the Ozone Layer above Antarctica is now equal to the size of North America. It has grown to 10.5 million square miles. Global temperatures are predicted to increase by average 2.5-10.4 % by the end of 21st century.
• The largest oil that was spilled by Exxon Valdez is equal to 2% of one day’s oil supply used in USA.
• Prokaryotes (single celled bacteria, 3.9 billion years ago)
• Blue green algae (first plants, 3.5-2.5 billion years ago)
• Eukaryotes (multi cellular organisms, 2.5-1 billion years ago)
• Metazoans (multicellular marine organisms (2 billion -540 million years ago)
• Trilobites (segmented marine arthropods, 540 million years ago)
• Carolus Linnaeus is called the Father of Classification of Nature (plants, animals and stones). He was the first to use the scientific name of Human beings as ‘Homo sapiens’.
• Plants Evolution:
• Seedless Vascular Plants (Ferns, Horsetails; 410 million years ago)
• Early Seed bearing Plants (Precursors to conifers; 360 million years ago)
• Bryophytes (Mosses; 320 million years ago)
• Gingkos (286 million years ago)
• Cycads (275 million years ago)
• Angiosperms (Flowering Plants; 130 million years ago)

World's Continents

Some facts of the World Continents

	Area on Earth	Highest Point	Lowest Point	Longest rivers
Asia	30%	Mt. Everest (8848m)	Dead sea (-396m)	Chang Jiang
Africa	20%	Mt. Killimanjaro (5895m)	Lake Assal (-151m)	Nile
North America	16%	Mt. Mckinley (6196m)	Death Valley (-87m)	Mississippi- Missouri
South America	12%	Mt. Aconcagua (6962m)	Valdes Peninsula (-40m)	Amazon
Antarctica	10%	Mt. Vinson Massif (4892m)	Bentley Sub glacial Trench	Onyx
Europe	7%	Mt. Elbrus (5642m)	Caspian sea shore	Volga
Australia	5%	Mt. Kosciusko (2228m)	Lake Eyre	The Murray

Towns on River Banks - India

Town	River
Allahabad	At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna
Patna	Ganga
Varansi	Ganga
Kanpur	Ganga
Haridwar	Ganga
Badrinath	Alaknanda
Agra	Yamuna
Delhi	Yamuna
Mathura	Yamuna
Ferozpur	Satluj
Ludhiana	Satluj
Srinagar	Jhelum
Lucknow	Gomti
Jaunpur	Gomti
Ayodhya	Saryu
Bareillly	Ram ganga
Ahmedabad	Sabarmati
Kota	Chambal
Jabalpur	Narmada
Panji	Mandavi
Ujjain	Kashipra
Surat	Tapti
Jamshedpur	Swarnarekha
Dibrugarh	Brahmaputra
Guwahati	Brahmaputra
Kolkata	Hooghly
Sambalpur	Mahanadi
Cuttack	Mahanadi
Serirangapatnam	Cauvery
Hyderabad	Musi
Nasik	Godavari
Vijayvada	Krishna
Curnool	Tungabhadra
Tiruchirapalli	Cauvery

Parliament of Different Countries    

Country	Parliament
Afghanistan	Shora
Andorra	General Council
Albania	People's Assembly
Azerbaijan	Melli Majlis
Algeria	National People's Assembly
Angola	National People's Assembly
Argentina	National Congress
Australia	Federal Parliament
Austria	National Assembly
Bahamas	General Assembly
Bahrain	Consultative Council
Bangladesh	Jatiya Sansad
Belize	National Assembly
Bhutan	Tsogdu
Bolivia	National Congress
Brazil	National Congress
Brunei	National Assembly
Botswana	National Assembly
Britain	Parliment (House of Common's and House of Lords)
Bulgaria	Narodno Subranie.
Cambodia	National Assembly
Congo Democratic	Rep. of National Legislative Council
Colombia	Congress
Canada	Parliament
China	National People's Assembly
Chile	Chamber of Deputies and Senate
Comoros	Legislative Council and Senate
Costa Rice	Legislative Council and Senate
Crotia	Sabor
Cuba	National Assembly of People's Power
Czech Republic	Chamber of Deputies and Senate
Denmark	Folketing
Ecuador	Natinal Congress
El Salvador	Legislative Assembly
East Timor	Constituent Assembly
Ethiopia	Federal Council and House of Representative
Egypt	People's Assembly
Fiji Islands	Senate & House of Representative
France	National Assembly
Finland	Eduskusta (Parliament)
Germany	Bundestag (Lower House) and Bundesrat (Upper House)
Guyana	National Assembly
Greece	Chamber of Deputies
Hungry	National Assembly
Iceland	Althing
India	Sansad
Indonesia	People's Consultative Assembly
Iran	Majlis
Iraq	National Assembly
Israel	Knesset
Italy	Chamber of Deputies and Senate
Japan	Diet
Jordan	National Assembly
Korea(North)	Supreme People's Assembly
Korea(South)	National Assembly
Kuwait	National Assembly
Laos	People's Supreme Assembly
Labanon	National Assembly
Lesotho	National Assembly and Senate
Lithuania	Seimas
Luxembourg	Chamber of Deputies
Libya	General People's Congress
Malaysia	Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Negara
Maldives	Majlis
Madagascar	National People's Assembly
Mongolia	Great People's Khural
Montenegro	Federal Assembly
Mozambique	People's Assembly
Myanmar	Pyithu Hluttaw
Nepal	Rashtriya Panchayat
Netherlands	The Staten General
New Zealand	Parliament (House of Representative)
Oman	Monarchy
Pakistan	National Assembly & Senate
Paraguay	Senate & Chamber of Deputies
Philippines	The Congress
Papua New Guinea	National Parliament
Poland	Sejm
Romania	Great National Assembly
Russia	Duma & Federal Council
Serbia	Federal Assembly
Senegal	National Assembly
Seychelles	People's Assembly
South Africa Rep.	House of Assembly
Spain	Cortes
Sweden	Riksdag
Saudi Arabia	Majlis Al Shura
Sudan	Majlis Watani
Switzerland	Federal Assembly
Syria	People's Council
Turkey	Grand National Assembly
USA	Congress
Vietnam	National Assembly
Venezuela	National Congress
Zambia	National Assembly

Description of World

World Description    

Geography:

• Age: 4.55 billion years old


• Total Area: 510.072 million sq km (196.940 million sq mi)
  Land area: 148.94 million sq km (57.506 million sq mi)
  Water area: 361.132 million sq km (139.434 million sq mi)
  Coastline: 356,000 km (221,208 mi)
  Note: 70.8% of the world is water, 29.2% is land.


• Land Boundaries: 251,480.24 km (156,262.58 mi) not counting shared boundaries twice.


• Climate: Two large areas of polar climates are seperated by two rather narrow temperature zones from a wide equatorial band of trophical to subtrophical climates.


• Terrain: Highest elevation is Mt. Everest at 8,850 m (29,035 ft) and lowest land depression is the Dead Sea at -411 m (-1,349 ft) below sea level. The greatest ocean depth is the Mariana Trench at -10,924 (-35,840 ft) in Pacific Ocean.


• Land Use: Arable land: 10.73%.
  Permanent Crops: 1%
  Other: 88.27%
  Irrigated land: 2,714,320 sq km (1,048,005 sq mi)

Populations Countries, 2008 Country Population (in Million) China 1,324.7 India 1,149.3 United States 304.5 Indonesia 239.9 Brazil 195.1 Pakistan 172.8 Nigeria 148.1 Bangladesh 147.3 Russia 141.9 Japan 127.7

Largest Population Growth or Decline , 2008 Country Percent Uganda 263 Niger 261 Burundi 220 Liberia 216 Guinea-Bissau 205 Congo, Dem. Rep. 185 Timor-Leste (East Timor) 179 Mali 169 Somalia 166 Angola 155

Rank Order - Birth Rates Country Birth Rate(births/1000 population) Niger 49.62 Mali 49.38 Uganda 48.15 Afghanistan 45.82 Sierra Leone 45.08 Burkina Faso 44.68 Somalia 44.12 Angola 44.09 Congo, Dem. Rep. 43.00 Liberia 42.92 INDIA(Rank-87) 22.22

Rank Order - Death Rates Country Birth Rate (death/1000 population) Swaziland 30.70 Angola 24.44 South Africa 22.70 Lesotho 22.33 Sierra Leone 22.26 Zimbabwe 21.70 Liberia 21.45 Zambia 21.35 Mozambique 20.29 Niger 20.26 INDIA(Rank-150) 6.40

Ten Most Happy Countries Denmark Puerto Rico Colombia Iceland Northern Ireland Republic of Ireland Switzerland Netherlands Canada Austria

Ten Most UnHappy Countries Zimbabwe Armena Moldova Belarus Ukraine Albania Iraq Bulgaria Georgia Russia

Most Stable and Prosperous Countries Vatican 99 Sweden 99 Luxembourg 99 Monaco 98 Gibraltar 98 San Marino 98 Liechtenstein 97 United Kingdom 97 The Netherlands 97 United States(22nd) 93

Most UnStable Central African Republic 39 Democratic Congo 38 Chad 38 Zimbabwe 38 Haiti 38 Ivory Coast 36 Afghanistan 36 Sudan 35 Somalia 29 Gaza and West Bank 27

Most Educated Countries in the world Rank Country Percentage of Population 1 Canada 44.0 2 United States 38.4 3 Japan 37.4 4 Sweden 33.4 5 Finland 33.3 6 Denmark 31.9 7 Australia 31.3 8 Norway 31.0 9 New Zealand 30.9 10 South Korea 29.5

Corruption Percentage Index Position Country Score 1 Denmark 9.3 1 New Zealand 9.3 1 Sweden 9.3 4 Singapore 9.2 5 Finland 9.0 5 Switzerland 9.0 7 Iceland 8.9 7 Netherlands 8.9 9 Australia 8.7 9 Canada 8.7 11 Luxembourg 8.3 12 Austria 8.1 12 Hong Kong 8.1 14 Germany 7.9 14 Norway 7.9 16 Ireland 7.7 16 United Kingdom 7.7 18 Belgium 7.3 18 Japan 7.3 18 USA 7.3 85 INDIA 3.4

India in Context of World

INDIA IN CONTEXT OF WORLD

Official Name : Republic of India
Capital : New Delhi
Nationality : Indian
Geographical Area (Sq. Km.) : 32,87,263Population (2001) : 1,02,87,37,436
Males : 53,22,23,090
Females : 49,65,14,346 Pop. Density : 325 per sq. km.
Sex Ratio : 933 females per 1000 males
Literacy Rate (2001) : 64.8%
Males : 75.2%
Females : 53.7%
Total workers : 40,22,34,724
National Income (2007-08) : Rs. 31,02,004 crores
Per Capita Income (2007-08) : Rs. 33,131
States : 28
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat, Karnataka, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Asom, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Punjab, Haryana, Kerala, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Sikkim, Goa.

List of Indian states and union territory capitals in India

Union Territories : 7
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Pondicherry, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu, Lakshadweep.
Mountain Ranges : 7
1. The Himalayas 2. The Patkoi and other ranges bordering India in the north and north-east 3. The Vindhyan 4. The Aravalli 5. The Satpura 6. The Sahyadri 7. The Eastern Ghats.
Main Watersheds : 3
1. Himalyan range with its Karakoram branch in the north, 2. Vindhyan and Satpura ranges in Central India, and 3. Sahyadri or Western Ghats on the West Coast.
Situation :India is the seventh largest country and second most populous country of the world accounting for about 2.4% of the total world area. lying entirely in the northern hemisphere, the mainland extends between latitude 8°4′ N and 37°6′ N and 68°7′ E and 97°25′ E and is a part of the Asian continent. India measures about 3,214 km from north to south between the extreme longitudes and about 2,933 km from east to west between the extreme longitudes. It has a land frontier of about 15,200 km. The total length of the costline of the mainland, lakshdweep islands and Andaman and Nicobar Isalands, is 7,575.6 km. Total geographic land area 32,87,263 sq km. If we consider cultivable land, India is second only to USA. India is located mid-way between West Asia and East Asia. Many transoceanic routes pass through India which connect African continent, industrially developed European continent, Petroleum rich West Asia and South-eastern countries, namely, China, Japan, Australia and Western coast of USA.
Countries having a common border with India are Afghanistan and Pakistan to the north-west, China, Bhutan and Nepal to the north, Myanmar to the east and Bangladesh to the east of West Bengal.
Physical Characteristics : The mainland consists of four well-defined regions :
1. The great mountain zone
2. The Indo-Gangetic plain
3. The desert region
4. The Southern Peninsula
Rivers : The rivers of India may be classified as follows :
1. The Himalayan rivers
2. The Deccan rivers
3. The Coastal rivers
4. The rivers of the inland drainage basin
Climatic Conditions : The Indian meteorological department recognizes four seasons viz.,
1. The Cold Weather (Dec. – Feb.)
2. The Hot Weather (March – May)
3. The Rainy Season (June – Sept.)
4. The season of the retreating monsoon (Oct. – Nov.)
The climatic regions based on rainfall are granted recognition in India.
Dimensions : Distance from north to south 3,214 km
Distance from east to west 2,933 km
Length of coastline 6,100 km
ength of land frontier 15,200 km

Boundaries :

North : The Himalayan range and Nepal separate India from Tibet. The protected state of Bhutan also lies in the north-east. The boundary line between India and China is called the MacMohan Line. India’s holder with Nepal spans for (1,752 km); with Bhutan (587 km); and with China (3,917 km).East : Myanmar (Burma) and Bangladesh form an enclave within India and the Bay of Bengal. Its international boundary with Myanmar is 1,458 km long and with Bangladesh is 4,096 km long.
West : In the north-west India shares a boundary mainly with Pakistan and the Arabian Sea on the west.
North-West : Afghanistan and Pakistan are situated on the north-west of India. India-Afghanistan border is only 80 km long whereas Indo-Pakistan border is 3,310 km long.
South : To the south of India are the Indian Ocean and Sri Lanka. The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait separate India from Sri Lanka on the eastern side.

Why Study Geography?

Why Study Geography?

Is geography a good choice?

You may be planning to go to university, or you may only be at the stage of choosing to study the subject
further within the school curriculum. Most students enjoy the scope of the material they cover in geography,
the insights it can provide into understanding the world around us and the sheer contemporary nature of the
issues it tackles. Key elements in the study of any subject are understanding and skills.

Is geography a good choice in terms of getting a job?

The skills you use in your geographical studies make you of potential interest to a wide range of employers.
The close link between the subject and the world around us makes for a long and varied list of related careers
for example working with development or aid agencies, environmental work, using Geographical Information
Systems, working for the census office and in tourism and recreation. However most of these areas involve
only one part of the broad subject of geography.
Statistics show that compared with other subjects, geographers are among the most employable. Many of
those leaving university with a geography degree enter three fields of employment: administration and
management; marketing or financial work. This is presumably because geographers possess the abilities and
skills that employers look for.

What sort of people do employers want and what do geography courses provide?

Employers want people with good communication skills – geography courses include a wide range of written
and oral skills writing essays, projects and oral presentations.
Employers want people who can work in a team – Fieldwork is an essential component of geography courses
and is an ideal setting in which to develop teamwork and leadership skills.
Employers want people who can manage themselves – The preparation of a GCSE or A Level investigation
fosters such skills.
Employers want people who can analyse their work - Geographical Investigations test hypotheses and
involve analysis.
Employers want people who are numerate and literate – Geographers are used to manipulating and
interpreting data and preparing reports which encourages conciseness and clarity in the use of language.
Employers want people who can ask questions and then find the answers – Geographers can pose problems
and then investigate the answers. They can undertake complex decision making exercises using information
at a variety of scales.
Employers want people who are computer literate – Geographers use ITC in many aspects of their work, for
data collection, through the Internet, analysing spreadsheets, all vital skills, especially in a commercial
business environment.
Employers want people who are spatially aware – Geographers use maps all the time. Mapping has
witnessed a revolution in recent years by harnessing remote sensing from satellites, and the development of
geographic information systems which are increasingly used in geography lessons.
Employers want people who are environmentally and socially aware – Geographers understand the links
between places and people. They can look at complex systems in a straightforward way.

What are the advantages of studying geography?

Geographers are taught a wide-ranging combination of skills drawing in ideas from many sources. This ability
to view issues from a wider perspective is appropriate for working in many different areas. The nature of
peoples’ working lives is changing. It is less likely that someone will spend all their life in one company or
organisation (the so-called job for life). If your career path is to be varied you will need to develop transferable skills and you will need to be flexible. Geography fosters these qualities and provides a firm base for life-long learning.

Geography and your future: sources of further information:

Your first port of call should be your school or college careers room or Library for resources. These may be
filed within the Careers Library Classification Index (CLCI). Any Geography related material should be found under abbreviation QOL – Earth and Environmental Sciences. Look out for resources produced by the Geographical Association and the RGS-IBG such as Exploring the World of Work: Geography and Careers.
Your Careers room should stock copies of all College and University prospectuses with information about
Geography courses in Higher Education. The Royal Geographical Society (with IBG) produces the Directory
of University Geography Courses.
And finally……….
If you are interested in a career that involves travel, you won’t be disappointed. Geographers really can work
anywhere in the world!

21st Century View Of Geography

A 21st Century View of Geography

In a global world, geography is important for a number of reasons, not limited to:

Business - Today, many products are designed not only locally but internationally as well. A
product cannot be sold if it does not meet the needs of the buyer and if it is not sensitive to
the cultural norms of a society.

Governments - Geography provides the tools to take into account factors, such as agriculture
and land use, population trends, projections and migrations and cultural patterns of language
and ethnicity, as new infrastructure is built or new trade is established.

Countries - Developing an appreciation for natural and environmental factors, including
climate change, and their effects on our present and future.

The World - By understanding our differences and similarities as cultures and as people, we
gain a greater awareness, tolerance, and understanding of humanity

U.S five themes of Geography and Standards

The US Five Themes of Geography
Education Module:

In 1984, the National Council for Geographic Education and the Association of American Geographers published a set of guidelines as a framework for teaching geography. The five themes of geography found in that publication, and adopted by many American classrooms, are:
1. Location
Relative Location
 Absolute Location
2. Place
 Human Characteristics
 Physical Characteristics
3. Human - Environmental Interactions (HEI)
 Humans adapt to the environment
 Humans modify the environment
 Humans depend on the environment
4. Movement
 People
 Goods
 Ideas
5. Regions
 Formal - official borders
 Functional - connections
 Vernacular - perceptual, but not formal ("Tri-City"," Mid-West")

The US National Geography Standards
Education Module:

 Key Concepts
 Place, Space, Scale
 Interdependence
 Physical and Human Processes
 Environmental Interaction and Sustainable Development
 Cultural Understanding and Diversity
 Key Processes
 Geographical Enquiry
 Fieldwork and Out-of-Class Learning
 Graphicacy and Visual Literacy
 Geographic Communication
In 1994 a set of National Geography Standards of were distributed by the National Council for Geographic Education as an update to the previous framework with a more detailed set of six standards and 18 principles for students to master.

Geography Introduction

Today's Geography: Definitions and Frameworks:

Ptolemy said in 150 AD:

"The purpose of geography is to provide 'a view of the whole' earth by mapping the location of
places."

Defination:

 "Geography is the study of the earth’s landscapes, peoples, places and environments. It is, quite
simply, about the world in which we live. Geography is unique in bridging the social sciences (human
geography) with the natural sciences (physical geography)."

The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English
Language defines geography
as follows:
1. The study of the earth and
its features and of the
distribution of life on the
earth, including human life
and the effects of human
activity.
2. The physical
characteristics, especially the
surface features, of an area.